Literature Review
The Human Body
The power and effect of body manipulation and transformation is a popular theme for discussion amongst theorists and analysts of film. It embraces the three themes of Body Modification(Pitts 2003, Friedman 1994), Cyborg (Bell 1965, Dixon and Cassidy 1998) and Body Horror (Riches 2012, Badley 1995). I intend to explore the way in which identity and various theories can be applied to each theme. Body Modification is the visual transformation of the body through processes such as tattooing, piercing and implants. A Dictionary of Film studies gives the definition of body horror that encapsulates the horror seen in the film Prometheus (Scott, 2012):
Body Horror refers to the subject matter of an uncontrollable transformation with ‘particular focus on human bodies that are subject to torture, mutilation, mutation, decay, degeneration, and transformation, usually shown in graphic detail via the use of special effects.' (Kuhn.A and Westwell.G, 2012)
Cyborgs are generally accepted by theorists (Haraway 2000, Williams and Michele 1999) to be an amalgamation of robotic technology and organic matter or a being that has enhanced abilities through the use of technology. Kristeva, a theorist on the Powers of Horror asserts that:
‘it is the body’s surface, acting as a national border, which initially enables us to see ourselves as distinct entities, defining us as subjects by marking our separation from the objects of the surrounding world’ (Kristeva,1982).
Thus the body is part of our identity and anything that is altered or adapted can be seen as abnormal. All three themes can be bound by the concept of the collapsing of boundaries and de-familiarisation of the accepted norm.
Freud’s theory of the ‘Uncanny’ (Freud.S. 1919) can be applied to the three different areas of interest through their unified ideology of the body being unconventionally altered to become unfamiliar. The uncanny is theorised as something that ‘arouses dread and horror’ (Schneider.S, 1999). Unheimlich concludes that what is ‘uncanny’ is frightening ‘precisely because it is unknown or unfamiliar’ (Freud, Mclintock and Haughton, 2003). The theorist Jentsch stresses, as one of the difficulties attendant upon the study of the uncanny, people differ greatly in their sensitivity to this kind of feeling. One would suppose, that the uncanny would always be an area in which a person was unsure of his way around the better orientated he was in the world around him, the less likely he would be to find the objects and occurrences in it uncanny.’ (Freud, Mclintock and Haughton, 2003, pg 124).
Body Modification appears ‘Uncanny’ as the body has been distorted beyond the norm, adapted and modified to express the individual.The book Body Modification; Theory Culture and Society (Featherstone, 2000) details multiple practises of modifying the body with the psychoanalytical reasoning behind the intent. It also provides insight into the cultural uses of modification, the ideologies that are enforced by aboriginal tribes. Body Modification encompasses the concept of Identity, to find ones identity through expression of the body or through ritual. Drax from Guardians of the Galaxy (Gunn, 2014) translates his identity onto his flesh through scarification representing the tribulations that he has endured. Erikson’s (1968) Theory addresses of ‘the psychological, social, cultural and historical factors that shape adolescence and the formation of adult identity[jfc1] ’. (Featherstone, 2000)
Sweetman (2000) states that body modification was attractive as it resisted the superficiality of consumer culture, thus standing out against conformity. Common to many of the accounts of body modification is the sense of taking control over one's body, of making a gesture against the body natural and the tyranny of habitus formation. It is noted that the art of modification is seen as anti-fashion as the work is permanent and remains with the subject for their lives whereas fashion comes and goes with the season.
Cybercultures Reader (Bell 1965) presents multiple theories concerning the psychoanalysis of the cyborg being. A Cyborg, is a human body morphed with machine, it appears in part to be of human origin, however it is combined with mechanical parts. In essence Cyborg fulfils the criteria for Freud’s theory of ‘The Uncanny’ in the animate and inanimate being as a being that is familiar yet frightening. Haraway is a theorist that has interesting concepts concerning the cyborg and requires further research for the appraisal as these link well with the other themes. She says that cyborg is:
‘a cybernetic organism, a hybrid of machine and organism, a creature of social reality as well as a creature of fiction.... It is the bastard offspring of patriarchal culture-a kind of dissembled and reassembled, postmodern collective and personal self'
Jentsch connects the uncanny with ‘the impressions made on us by waxwork figures, ingeniously contrasted dolls and automata because these arouse vague notions of an automic, mechanical process that may lie hidden behind the familiar image of a living person (Freud.S, 2003, Pg 135)’.
The cyborg draws upon Freud's theory that any threat to the development of the ego might encourage the creation of some kind of defensive armour ' in which the subject attains invulnerability by aligning itself with the rationalistic predictability of the machine'. This statement describes Freud’s theory of the Ego, which creates ‘a mental projection on the surface of the body’. This concept also links to Nietzsche’s Ubermensche (Superman) theory, the ‘desire to supplement the human body’. Both these theories can easily be applied to the concept of cyborgs. (Johnson-Smith.J, 2003, pg 54)
Jancovich defines Body Horror as a subgenre emerging in the 1970s, dealing with a contemporary ‘crisis of identity through a concentration on processes of bodily disintegration and transformation’ (Crofts, C. 2003, pg 117) Body horror plays on the cultural belief that the body is our own private space which guarantees the sense of self but that extraneous society interference compromise that sense of security and identity with its own rules and conventions and “these developments blur the distinctions necessary for a stable sense of self”. (Crofts, C. 2003, pg 117)
Body Horror falls into The Uncanny Valley (Mori, 1970) as the body, the familiar, is distorted into something unfamiliar and frightening through a gruesome process. The human corpse is an epitome of the uncanny valley, therefore the gruesome transformations that occur in body horror are a recurrent reminder of imminent death. Kristeva’s Powers of Horror theory on abjection is something that will be explored for the appraisal as it is the theory that the abject reminds us of the ‘origin or the end of identity’,’ the expulsion of alien elements, but the alien is effectively established through this expulsion’ (Crofts 2003).
Cronenburgh a theorist on the subject of body horror and producer of films such as ‘The Fly’, a prime example of body horror poses many questions which define the subject. Why should a healthy mind die just because the body is not healthy? In his work, philosophical problems such as personal identity and bodily transformation, the nature of self and the nature of reality occur recurrently and are all major issues with all three topics chosen therefore would bear consideration in all aspects. (Riches.S, 2012).
I will use these aforementioned theorists to inform the writing of the appraisal in order to achieve the most accurate and in-depth research on the subject areas.
Word Count: 1118
Appraisal
Introduction
This appraisal covers the themes of Body Modification (Friedman 1994, Kristeva 1982, Barthes 1967, Wilson 1985, Councell and Wolfe 2001), Cyborg (Haraway 2000, Bell 1965, Best.S and Kellner.D 2001) and Body Horror (Badley 1995, Crofts, 2003) exploring the encompassing theme of the human body. I will look at their relationship with Freud’s theory, The Uncanny (Freud, McLintock, and Haughton) and Identity (Friedman 1994, Sweetman 2000) with analysis in relation to the case studies Guardians of the Galaxy (Gunn, 2014), Terminator (Cameron, 1984) and Prometheus (Scott, 2012). This appraisal explores how the body can project its owner’s identity through physical expression in terms of modification, horror and cyborg.
The human body is a canvas for an individual’s ideological self-expression. Drax, in Guardians of the Galaxy is a man who has lost his family to murder. As an expression of his emotion he has carved into his skin, creating permanent scarification. Cyborgs raise the questions of what makes us individual and whether our unique identities will be lost if society chooses to fuse the biological and mechanical together. The film Terminator explores the concept of projection (Johnson-Smith, 2003); creating an outer shell to appear familiar whereas the inner self is unfamiliar. Finally, body horror; at what point is the body still the body? When body horror occurs, does one’s identity alter and what manifestations occur creating the horrific image of the body? These themes are explored in the film Prometheus.
Body Horror
A Dictionary of Film Studies describes Body Horror as a transformation with ‘particular focus on human bodies that are subject to torture, mutilation, mutation, decay, degeneration, and transformation’ (Kuhn and Westwell 2012, pg 39). Body horror can be traced back to 1950s with films such as The Blob (1958) and Invasion of the Body Catchers (1956), which show processes of bodily usurpation and dissolution (Kuhn and Westwell, 2012, pg 39). Jancovich defines it as crisis of identity through a concentration on ‘processes of bodily disintegration and transformation’ (Crofts, 2003 pg 117). This plays on the idea that one’s very sense of self can be lost in the horrific transformation. The Prometheus character, Fifield, is attacked by an alien creature, causing Fifield to slowly mutate, becoming visually horrific. His body gains inhuman abilities, implying his loss of self. Fifield has the greatest sense and caution, allowing the audience to relate to his attempts at prevention of disaster. His fall is, therefore, more horrific as one sees a familiarity which is later lost. This ‘loss of familiarity’ is a strong example of Freud’s theory of The Uncanny (Das Unheimliche 1919). Fifield’s transformation retains just enough familiarity to disturb and horrify as the audience can still identify with Fifield’s lost humanity.
Jancovich develops the idea that Body Horror capitalises on our innate cultural belief that the body is our own ‘private property which guarantees compromise that sense of identity and security with its own rules and conventions and these developments blur the distinctions necessary for a stable sense of self’ (Crofts, 2003, pg 117). The concept of ‘body invasion’ is a recurrent theme that directly associates with body horror.
Williams states that body horror embodies fantasies of interiority: boundaries between inside and outside are transgressed, insiders are rendered visible, the body within ceases to be a private space. (Crofts, 2003, pg 117). It becomes ‘unheimliche’.
Jancovich proposes that a central theme of body horror is the ‘body as a womb which gives birth to a new life-form subsequently discarding the original body and the original self although it comes from within’ (Crofts, 2003). This concept directly applies to Prometheus where female archaeologist, Shaw, gives caesarean-birth to a monster. The brutal scene depicts the fully-conscious Shaw undergoing surgery, after the alien’s one-day gestation period in order to prevent it from rejecting her as the host and consuming her. Invasion of the body by foreign matter is a common fear, whether it be by malignant disease or a malevolent alien. Scobie in his 1993 analysis of the chest-buster scene in Alien describes it as a male fantasy of birth in terms of a fear of the “mystery and unknown of women’s power.” (Bihlmeyer, 2013). Perverse, voyeuristic fascination with body horror accounts for its frequent use in performance to create an unheimlich atmosphere.
Kristeva’s theory of abjection (Crofts, 2003 pg 118) applies to the aforementioned birth scene, in which Shaw forcibly removes the alien inside her. Similarly, the ’Engineer’ creature’s body is host to a primate ‘Alien’ losing its power and sense of identity from the switch in power. David, a cyborg has his head forcibly removed at one stage in the film, in which a cream like substance is excreted. Kristeva’s theory suggests that such bodily excretions project the idea of life being ‘at the border of my condition as a living being… Such wastes drop so that I might live, until, from loss to loss, nothing remains in me and my entire body falls beyond the limit’ (Kristeva, 1982)
Body Horror filmmaker David Cronenberg, ‘has frequently explored people's fears of bodily transformation and infection in films such as Shivers (1975) and The Fly (1986) (Riches, 2012). Body Horror can be seen to exploit people’s perverse and voyeuristic fascination for something loathsome and abhorrent that they cannot turn away from.” (Kuhn and Westwell 2012 pg 39). Cronenberg has an apt quote ‘The Monster doesn’t jump out of the closet, instead the body is the closet out of which the monster jumps” (Williams and Michele, 1999 pg 35) - thus implying that through the physicality of body horror and also the loss of self through the transformation, the original being has become the monster.
Cyborg
The term ‘Cyborg’ stands for Cybernetic Organism and originated in 1960 from an article by Clynes and Kline. It is ‘a hybrid of machine and organism, a creature of social reality as well as a creature of fiction’ (Haraway, 2000, pg 291) Terminator is an example of a cyborg within performance; the titular character having a robotic core with an organic exterior. Terminator ‘is a creature in a post-gender world; it has no truck with bisexuality, pre-oedipal symbiosis, unalienated labour, or other seductions to organic wholeness through a final appropriation of all the powers of the parts into a higher unity.” (Haraway, 2000, pg 291). It investigates ‘the threats to humanity posed by unchecked technological developments they raise even more probing questions about the consequences of our definitions of the human.’ (Pyle, 2000, pg 124-137).
When a being is more mechanical than biological can it still be called human? At what point is personal identity lost? ‘When a man-machine hybrid becomes self-regulating and the cyborg deliberately incorporates exogenous components extending the self-regulatory control function of the organism in order to adapt it to new environments can it still be identified as human?’ (Clynes and Klines, 1960, pg 27). The Terminator has no emotions or feeling, proven in the scene where he impassively opens his arm to repair the damaged mechanisms. The terminator kills people mercilessly throughout the film. There is no sense of ‘self’ found within him. ‘One of the most profound issues raised by new technologies: the possibility that people’s identities and emotional lives would take on the properties of machines.’ (Gonzales, 2000 pg 541) This raises the question that if people begin to technologically alter themselves, will the mankind lose their individuality? When a being is more mechanical than biological can it still be called human? At what point is personal identity lost? ‘When a man-machine hybrid becomes self-regulating and the cyborg deliberately incorporates exogenous components extending the self-regulatory control function of the organism in order to adapt it to new environments can it still be identified as human?’ (Clynes and Klines, 1960, pg 27).
The Terminator has no emotions or feeling, proven in the scene where he impassively opens his arm to repair the damaged mechanisms. The terminator kills many people mercilessly throughout the film. There is no sense of ‘self’ found within him. ‘One of the most profound issues raised by new technologies: the possibility that people’s identities and emotional lives would take on the properties of machines.’ (Gonzales, 2000 pg 541) This raises the question that if people begin to technologically alter themselves, will the human race lose their individuality?
American Science Fiction Tv (2004, pg 54) states that the cyborg theme draws upon Freud's theory that threat to the ego might encourage the creation of some kind of defensive armour 'in which the subject attains invulnerability by aligning itself with the rationalistic predictability of the machine'. Freud’s theory conveys the idea of creating ‘a mental projection on the surface of the body’ (Johnson-Smith, 2004, pg 54). Nietzsche’s Man and Superman theories touch on the idea of the ‘desire to supplement the human body’(Johnson-Smith, 2004, pg 54) It is the idea of adding or removing elements of the human body to create a more empowered being, enhancing the body to realms unreachable by biological factors alone. Terminator gives the increasing real symbiosis between the human body and machinery in modern mundane life. (Johnson-Smith, 2004, pg 87)
With technological advancements in robotics and AI, the concept of Transhumanism becomes ever more relevant in modern society; potentially bringing about the loss of self within society as eventually technology could dominate over the biological factors of mankind. We’re becoming cyborgs, our machines are becoming ‘smart’ and more human-like. (Best and Kellner 2001, Pg 151). The question is at what point will humans become more machine-like and is it possible for technology ‘to evolve and exceed all human powers’ (Best and Kellner 2001, Pg 152)
Similar to Freud’s theory of The Uncanny, Mori’s concept of ‘The Uncanny Valley’ submits the idea that when something is altered too far it can become unfamiliar and fall into the said valley creating a sense of fear. This idea is utilised in many films to create anxiety and horror. Terminator does so by concealing the mechanical elements of his being until a way into the film, arousing the audience’s curiosity which evolves into fear upon realisation of his being. The uncanny is ‘a sense of estrangement within the home, the presence of something threatening, tempting and unknown that lies within the bounds of the intimate.’ (Freud, McLintock, and Haughton, 2003) Therefore the reveal of his robotic elements creates this essence in the audience.
Body Modification
Body Modification focuses on visual transformation of the body through piercings, tattoos, plastic surgery, weight alteration, muscle building to name a few. Each modification to the body represents the individual, projecting their identity through physical expression. The purpose of body modification may be to provoke reaction and challenge society’s presumed ideals or as a mode of self-expression to show that the owner is more than their outer shell. Some people seek control over their body or improve themselves for society’s approval and for some it is a ritual or spiritual act such as the right of passage through circumcision or body scarification as used in many tribes in Africa, done by burning or cutting to create a prominent scar. Body marks designate political identity at certain points in the lifecycle enforcing the prominence of identity onto oneself. (Featherstone, 2000, pg 40) Body modification spans class, race and history and embraces the concept of the collapsing of boundaries and de-familiarisation of the accepted norm.
The film Guardians of the Galaxy portrays a significant amount of body modification. The character Gamora has been so scientifically altered as a weaponised-being with superhuman skills she could perhaps be considered cyborg rather than merely ‘enhanced’. The main focal character for body modification however is Drax. He is covered head to toe in scarification as an outward expression of the love for his murdered family. Such modification can be seen as ‘attempts to construct and maintain a coherent and viable sense of self-identity through attention to the body and more particularly the body’s surface’ (Featherstone, 2000, pg 53) When does modification become self-mutilation? ‘Self- mutilation expresses a suffering self’ (Featherstone, 2000, pg 293) it can be seen as a commitment to oneself, to remember and cherish ones past as it creates their present. With losing his family Drax has lost what anchored him and gave him purpose. Bryan Turner contrasts the social framing of body modification in traditional and postmodern societies, arguing that traditional tribalism led to stability of the in-group against outsiders (Featherstone, 2000). This can be applied to Drax and his need to regain stability with the loss of his group.
Some see body modification as a fashion choice to express artwork on their skin, however an argument against this case is that true fashion is defined as 'a system of continual and perpetual . . . change' (Polhemus & Procter, 1978, pg 25). Therefore modification could be considered anti-fashion. The choice is made for life, it is a permanent marking on the skin. Conversely, if fashion is considered a trend, does that imply that modification will thus become so? If so, it could mean the loss of individuality and potentially self, amongst others. Some see body modification as a means to prevent society from projecting expectations based on gender, age, race and sexual orientation onto oneself. It presents a challenge to ‘concepts of what is beautiful and what is human’ (Morgen, 2012).
The main reasons for body modification are based around aesthetics, identity and society pressures. Individualisation is characterised by ‘the tendency towards increasingly flexible self-awareness ‘(Cote & Levine 2002 Pg 59) Displaying one’s identity on the skin is a bold approach. It takes an apt quote to put your heart on your sleeve and make it permanent. ‘The external body presents the identity whereas self comes from taking internal information out of the psyches to actualise identity related decisions and execute behaviour.’ (Cote and Levine, 2002 Pg 67) Drax’s scarification can be taken as a sign of strength revealing his internal psyche.
The uncanny is present in figures whose visually apparent features are close to, but not exactly like, those of an unmodified human being. (Hamilton, 2014, pg 190). Thus Freud’s theory of the uncanny applies to each segment. When a body is modified, the visual aesthetics remain human yet there is a unnatural air about them.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the preceding topics can be connected through the concept of the individuality of the human body and its boundaries, inside and outside. Whether it be through the modification of the body for outward expression of identity, the convergence with machine for self-preservation or the loss of self through the body’s transformation, a voyeuristic interest in Freud’s Uncanny can be highlighted through all cases. The individual case studies have prime examples that cohesively link all the themes of identity, the self and the uncanny together with support from theorists. Continuing along the vein of the human body I would like to investigate further the various issues with the body for my dissertation. Themes that could be explored include the portrayal of sexuality in performance or deformities that occur to the body, and society’s view on these subject matters. I would look into adaptation that occurs to the body that arouses the sense of the uncanny and stimulates further debate.
Word Count 2164
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